The Roman Army in the Late Republic and Early Empire

NB: Over the centuries, the Roman army changed and developed, and conditions often differed somewhat depending on the provinces where the troops were fighting and stationed. The following information is intended to give a generic picture of military organization, armor, weaponry, etc. during the late Republic and early Empire.
LEGIONS (legio):
The legion was the basic unit of Rome's standing army of career soldiers, the legionaries, who were all Roman citizens and fought primarily as foot-soldiers (infantry). The number of legions under arms varied in different time periods (there were, for example, 28 legions under Augustus in 25 BCE), and each legion had both a number and a title, though some numbers were duplicated (we know, for example, of III Augusta, III Cyrenaica, III Gallica, III Italica, III Parthica).
Though the exact numbers of men in a legion varied, the basic pattern of organization remained the same. The smallest unit was the tent group (contubernium), composed of 8 men who shared a tent, a mule, and eating equipment. These were organized into a disciplinary unit called a century (despite the fact that a century typically had 80 rather than 100 men), under the command of a centurion. The basic fighting unit was a cohort, composed of six centuries (480 men plus 6 centurions). The legion itself was composed of ten cohorts, and the first cohort had many extra men—the clerks, engineers, and other specialists who did not usually fight—and the senior centurion of the legion, the primipilus, or “number one javelin.”

• A Modern “Legion”: British Schoolchildren Visit a Roman Fort

 CAMPS (castra):
As Josephus notes, the Roman camps were always constructed according to a set pattern, laid out like a city bisected by two streets leading to four gates. Even temporary camps used when the army was on the march were always fortified, surrounded by a deep ditch and a wall. Click on the following for some images associated with military camps:

• Model of Camp
• Model of Headquarters
• Reconstructed Camp Gate
• Reconstructed Camp Walls
• Reconstructed Stakes and Ditch
• Foundations of a Barracks for a Century
• Side View of Barracks Foundation, showing the two rooms shared by a tent group
• Reconstructed Barracks for Two Centuries

STANDARDS(signa):
One of the most striking visual aspects of the Roman army were the standards, tall poles topped with various insignia and symbols, including many types of animals. During the Empire, the image of the emperor was also added to many standards. The standards were not just for show; they served important practical functions as well. Each century, cohort, and legion had its own standard; during battle and other activities, these were held by officers called standardbearers (general term signifer) who were marked out from other soldiers by the animal-head skins they wore on their heads, which can be clearly seen on this relief from Trajan's column. The standards helped to keep the units together, since the soldiers could see them above the action. Standards also helped to preserve the cohesiveness and pride of each unit, as they represented a concrete symbol of that unit's achievements. They were also used in various religious rituals designed to promote unity. The most important standard in each legion was the legionary eagle (also visible in this relief), made of a precious metal (usually silver) and symbol of the power of Rome and the honor of the legion. To lose the legionary eagle in battle was a terrible disgrace, and leaders like Augustus who succeeded in recovering captured legionary eagles capitalized on the propaganda value of the event (for example, Augustus depicted the surrender of the eagle that had been captured by the Parthians on the cuirass of his Prima Porta statue). The eagle standard was carried by a special standard bearer (aquilifer) who wore a lion-skin headdress. Click on the following for more images:

• Relief of Legionary Eagle and Military Flag (vexillum)
• Relief of Military Standards
• Reconstructed Legionary Eagles
• Reconstructed Standards with Animals
• Reconstructed Standard with Winged Horse
• Reconstructed Standards, Military Flag, and Javelins (pila)
• Statue of Legionary Standardbearer (aquilifer)
• Drawing of Legionary Standardbearer

OFFICERS

General: Each military campaign was assigned one general (dux), though there was not a single commander-in-chief until imperial times because a number of campaigns could be conducted simultaneously in different geographic areas. Generals were always aristocrats of the senatorial class, usually consuls or ex-consuls, since they had to hold at least praetorian rank in order to be granted imperium (the right to command an army) by the Senate; during the Empire, the emperor was the sole commander-in-chief, though he frequently delegated the actual command duties to generals who were his close associates, often relatives by birth or marriage. Generals and other officers wore Greek style armor over the military tunic—a molded leather breastplate that imitated the musculature of the chest and fringed strips of leather over the thighs and shoulders. Extant depictions of generals (like this relief of the emperor Trajan addressing his troops) do not show generals wearing helmets, but they may of course have worn them in battle. The item of clothing that visually distinguished a general from all other officers was his purple cloak (this was a military style cloak, called a lacerna, that was fastened by a large brooch on one shoulder).
Legates and Military Tribunes: Generals commanded many legions, but each legion had its own commander (at least after the time of Augustus), called the legionary legate (legatus), who was also of senatorial rank. Under each legionary legate were six military tribunes (tribuni militares), who carried out administrative duties. Young upper-class Roman men used this position as a stepping-stone to a political career, so the tribunes often did not have much military experience or ability.
Centurions: Chief among the officers who were not of equestrian or senatorial rank were the centurions (centuriones), each of whom commanded an eighty-man century. The centurions were professional soldiers, responsible for maintaining discipline in their units and for supervising the fighting on the field. In other words, they were the officers who kept the army running (and fighting) smoothly. The armor of the centurions was similar to that of other officers, with the exception of their helmets, which were topped with a transverse crest that extended from side to side instead of front to back, the shin protectors ( greaves) they wore on their legs, and the vinewood staff they carried to discipline soldiers. This tombstone, put up for the centurion Marcus Caelius by his brother even though his body was never found, shows the vinewood staff and the numerous medallions (phalerae) won in battle by Caelius. Under each centurion was a standardbearer, a deputy (optio) who took command of the century if the centurion was killed or wounded, and the tesserarius, who was in charge of the sentries.
TROOPS IN ROME
The Praetorian Guard: Since the time of Sulla, Roman legions were not allowed to be stationed in Rome or Italy, but in 27 BCE Augustus founded a new, elite organization, the praetorian guard, to serve as a permanent bodyguard for the emperor. There were originally 9 cohorts, 3 of whom were stationed in Rome with the rest in nearby towns. Under Tiberius, all 9 cohorts were garrisoned in one camp in Rome (the castra praetoria), and Caligula increased the number of cohorts to 12. The praetorians were under the command of two prefects (later only one) of equestrian rank and were divided into centuries in the usual manner. Service in the guard was easier and more prestigious than in the legions, and praetorians were paid 2-3 times more than the legionaries. As can be seen from the statue at right, their armor was similar to the dress uniform of earlier Republican troops, with molded leather breastplates and helmets with visors and crests. To learn more about the praetorians, visit the Praetorian Camp in Region VI of VRoma, either via the web gateway or the anonymous browser.
The Urban Cohorts: When Augustus instituted the office of city prefect (praefectus urbi), he also established 3 cohorts (the cohortes urbanae) to constitute a sort of police force for the city of Rome. These troops were also stationed in the camp of the praetorians in Rome, though they served under the command of the city prefect, a man of senatorial rank. Outstanding service in the urban cohorts could lead to promotion into the more prestigious praetorian guard.
The Vigiles: The vigiles, also founded by Augustus, served as fire fighters and night watchmen in the city of Rome. They were originally drawn from the ranks of freedmen and were not really soldiers, although they were organized on a quasi-military basis. The commander of the vigiles was a prefect of equestrian rank (the praefectus vigilum). They were divided into seven cohorts led by tribunes; each cohort was responsible for two of the 14 regions of the city.
Continue with Roman Army, Part II for information on legionary armor, auxiliary troops, army activities and pay, and punishments and rewards.

The Roman Army, Part II

LEGIONARY ARMOR
During much of this period an ordinary legionary soldier (miles legionarius) wore fairly standard armor, which was well adapted to the legionary style of fighting. Over a simple woolen military tunic (which ended above the knees), he wore a corselet made of curved strips of metal fastened together with leather thongs (known today as the lorica segmentata, though this may not have been its name in antiquity); this provided good protection with the maximum amount of flexibility. His helmet (galea) was made of metal (usually iron); though there were various styles of helmet, most had a round cap with a ring on top (for fastening a plume when on parade), hinged cheekpieces, a neck protector in back, and no visor. His military boots (caligae) were laced high over the ankle and had carefully placed hobnails on the sole for traction. Around his waist he wore a military belt (cingulum militare) to which were attached a sheath and short dagger (pugio). From the front of the belt, over his belly, were suspended strips of leather to which metal disks were riveted. In his left hand he carried a large shield (scutum), usually a curved rectangular shape though sometimes oval; this was made of leather and canvas stretched over a wooden frame and was often decorated with individual designs representing his service, century, and cohort. Over the handgrip was a round metal boss that provided room for his hand and was useful for deflecting blows. His primary throwing weapon was a carefully designed javelin (pilum), of which he carried one or two. These had sharp, tempered metal points attached to long, untempered metal shafts that would bend on impact, making the javelin hard to pull out of a wound or shield and impossible to reuse by the enemy. His sword (gladius) was designed for the stabbing and thrusting (rather than slashing) style of hand-to-hand combat favored by the legions; it was short (approximately 20-22 inches long), with a two-edged blade that tapered to a sharp point and was carried in a scabbard suspended from a shoulder belt. Click on the following for more images:

• Statue of Legionary
• Drawing of Legionary from early imperial period
• Drawing of Legionary from later imperial period
• Drawing of Legionary with Marching Gear
• Drawing of Legionary in Parade Dress

AUXILIARIES
Auxiliary troops (auxilia) were composed of noncitizens, usually from the various Roman provinces. As their name suggests, they were intended to supplement the legionary infantry that was the backbone of the Roman army by employing different methods of fighting, including light-armed infantry, slingers, archers, and especially cavalry. Auxiliary soldiers were also organized in cohorts and usually served under the command of Roman officers, though they were occasionally led by chiefs from their own regions. Auxiliary cavalrymen used thrusting spears and longer swords than the legionaries; they carried smaller shields and often wore armor of chain mail. The parade dressof the cavalry was quite dramatic, including a mask that covered the faceor even the whole head; even the horses wore elaborate face coverings. Click on the following for tombstones of auxiliary cavalrymen:

• Tombstone of Longinus
• Tombstone of M. Aemilius Durises

ARMY ACTIVITIES, SERVICE AND PAY
The primary activity of soldiers was of course training and fighting. The Roman army was a highly organized and disciplined fighting machine. The basic tactical fighting unit was the cohort, composed of 6 centuries, each with its centurion, standardbearer and hornblower to relay commands and maintain discipline and unity. Signals were sounded either on the round horn (cornu, carried by a cornicen) or a long straight trumpet (tuba, carried by a tubicen). Besides fighting in the open, soldiers had to defend Roman cities and forts against sieges and to conduct sieges against enemy cities and forts. One fighting formation used in such sieges was the “turtle” (testudo), in which the legionaries made a kind of protective shell by layering their shields over the heads and sides of a tightly packed group of men. Long sieges could involve elaborate construction work, as can be seen in this model of the Julius Caesar's siege of Avaricum. Siege machines included siege towers and battering rams as well as various types of artillery. Catapultae used a cross-bow principle to shoot heavy iron bolts with arrowheads; the scorpio was a smaller type of catapult. Ballistae were similar to catapults, though larger, but they shot stones instead of arrows.
See Josephus for a description of the many other activities carried out by Roman soldiers, including building camps, tending the wounded, quarrying stones, building walls and fortifications, and building roads and bridges. All these were carried out for increasingly long terms of service. The original maximum service was 16 years, with approximately 6 of these years on active duty. Augustus first increased the term to 16 years of active service plus 4 additional years on reserve and later to 20 years active service. After Augustus, full active service was required for 25-26 years. Legionary pay was never lavish (112.5 denarii per year, which was doubled by Julius Caesar to 225 denarii), and the cost of food and arms was deducted from this amount. In contrast, centurions received considerably higher pay; under Augustus, the lowest ranking centurion was paid 3,750 denarii and the highest ranking, 15,000 denarii.
PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS
Punishments: When the Roman soldier enrolled in legionary service, he swore a solemn military oath (sacramentum) originally to the Senate and Roman People, later to the general and the emperor, that he would fulfill his conditions of service even to the point of death; in effect, he gave up his citizen's right of appeal for any death sentence. Discipline in the army was quite rigorous, and the general had life-and-death power over his soldiers. The most lenient sentences, for minor offences, involved food rationing, hitting with the centurion's staff, or public flogging. More serious offences could lead to fines and deductions from pay, reductions in rank, loss of advantages from length of service, or even a dishonorable discharge (missio ignominiosa). For the most serious offences, such as desertion, a soldier could be summarily executed. The worst punishment of all was decimation, usually applied to a whole cohort, in which every tenth man in the unit was randomly selected to be clubbed or beaten to death by the other soldiers.
Rewards: Rewards were generally allocated on the basis of the rank of the recipient with the exception of one decoration, the “civic crown” of oak leaves (corona civica), which could be awarded to a soldier of any rank who saved the life of a citizen. Consequently, we find the civic crown proudly displayed by individuals from various classes, from this image above the doorway of a house in Pompeii all the way up the the emperor Augustus (though his civic crown was awarded on a symbolic rather than literal basis). Legionary soldiers and noncommissioned officers below the rank of centurion were entitled to receive monetary bonuses, part of the booty and spoils after a conquest, and various decorations, such as a gold necklet (torques) or armband (armilla), or gold, silver, or bronze sculpted disks (phalerae) that were worn on the breastplate during parades and other dress occasions. Upon his honorable discharge (missio honesta), a legionary soldier received permission to marry, a pension, and sometimes a grant of land. Auxiliaries frequently received a diploma, two small engraved bronze tablets bound together with bronze threads; these recorded the privileges granted to the soldier on his discharge, which often included citizenship and the right to contract a legal marriage (click here for a facsimile drawing of a diploma with inscription from 98 CE).
Besides the above decorations, centurions were entitled to various other crowns, including a plain gold crown (corona aurea) and the mural crown (corona muralis), given to the first man over the walls of a besieged city. Higher officers could be awarded a ceremonial silver spear (the hasta pura) or a small silver replica of a standard or flag (the vexillum). The highest military decoration was the siege crown (corona obsidionalis), made or grass or other vegetation and awarded to the officer responsible for delivering a besieged army.

Victorious generals received the most tangible awards as well as the highest honors. They frequently set up a trophy (tropaeum) in a prominent location, displaying enemy shields, weapons, and armor captured in battle. Generals could also claim the largest share of the booty and spoils from conquered cities and tribes, includingcaptives who could be sold into slavery. These could include women and children, though the most prominent captives, such as chieftains or rulers, would be retained to march in the general's triumphal procession, with the possibility of subsequent execution. The greatest reward of all was the triumph (triumphus), an elaborate procession through the city of Rome to Jupiter's temple on the Capitoline hill. During the Republic a triumph could be awarded only to a victorious general (who was termed imperator or triumphator) upon permission of the Senate; during the Empire, triumphs were reserved for the emperor or members of the imperial family. The procession began with hornblowers and priests and sacrificial animals, usually pure white bulls raised especially for such occasions. Next came bearers carrying masses of booty and spoils and chained captives, the more prominent, the better. At the end of the procession marched the victorious soldiers in parade dress, followed by thelictors, senators, and the imperator himself. For this occasion he was dressed in gilded shoes and purple garments embroidered with gold (the tunica palmata and thetoga picta). He rode in a special gilded chariot pulled by 4 horses; he carried a small ivory scepter topped with the image of an eagle and wore a crown of laurel leaves. Since all these trappings put the triumphator in a godlike position, behind him in the chariot stood a public slave who held a gold crown over his head and repeatedly reminded him that he was only a mortal. Triumphs were so significant that they were often represented on coins and other objects, such as this coin of Octavian, acameo of an emperor (probably Hadrian) whose chariot is pulled by eagles and whose head is crowned by the goddess Roma, and even a honey-cake mold depicting the triumph of Marcus Aurelius, whose head is crowned by a winged victory.
The triumphal arch provided a more permanent record to commemorate a great victory; these were often topped with an image of the emperor or general driving the triumphal four-horse chariot (quadriga), as can be seen on this coin of Octavian.