Master Calligrapher

Full name: Abu Ali Muhammad Ibn Ali, known as Ibn Muqla (“Son of Muqla”)

What he did:

• Codified the six scripts (al aqlam al-sitta) that became the foundation for the practice of calligraphy to come
• Established a proportional writing system that used a circle with the diameter of the letter alif as its basis
• Wrote extensively about the art of calligraphy and devised theories of letter shapes

Biography:

• Born in Baghdad
• Became a scribe in the administration of the ‘Abbasid caliphate (750-1258)
• Became head of the state library
• Was made vizier (chief counselor) three times between 928 and 936, all under different rulers
• Was imprisoned three times during periods of political turmoil
• During one imprisonment, his enemies cut off his right hand. When released, he continued to work with great skill using his left hand
• Finally, his left hand was severed, his tongue cut out, and he was cast into prison where he died

It was in the 3rd century AH (9th-10th century CE) that the master calligrapher Ibn Muqla perfected his theory of “proportioned script” (al-Khatt al-Mansoub), by which the basic letter-shapes of written Arabic could be controlled. Ibn Muqla’s work was a major milestone in the history of Arabic penmanship. The principles he laid down transformed Arabic script from rudimentary Kufic strokes to a harmoniously structured art form. The order and beauty which Ibn Muqla devised as visual criteria for the formation of Arabic letter-shapes constituted, first and foremost, an act of worship. The art form into which he converted the execution of written Arabic was one considered truly compatible with preserving and conveying the Word of God as revealed in the Holy Quran.

The six scripts

The detail and order which Ibn Muqla brought to Arabic script extended to the reed pen which, according to his teachings, must be cut in a special, clearly delineated way. For over ten centuries, Arabic calligraphers continued to cut their pens and execute the formal strokes, curves, and dots of written Arabic according to Ibn Muqla’s precepts.

The Six Scripts

1. Naskh

2. Thuluth

3. Muhaqqaq

4. Rayhani

5. Tawqiâ € ~

6. Ruqaâ € ~ a

The manuscripts of Ibn Muqla

 

Calligraphy from the Ottoman empire and other places in the western Muslim world

 

This single panel praises Muhammad's son-in-law 'Ali and his famous double-edged sword Dhu al-Fiqar.

Calligrapher: Farid al-Din. 19th century. 23.4 x 15.1 cm. Various scripts. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

  

This ijaza, or diploma of competency in Arabic script calligraphy, was written by 'Ali Ra'if Efendi in 1791. In the two lowermost panels appear the signed approvals of two master calligraphers, Mustafa al-Halimi and Husayn Hamid.

Calligrapher: 'Ali Ra'if Efendi. 1791 A.D. 28 x 21 cm. Thuluth and naskh scripts. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

 

This 18th-century Ottoman levha, or calligraphic panel, depicts a Shi'i phrase in obverse and reverse, creating an exact mirror image. Today, scholars accept mirror writing as a standard form of Arabic script calligraphy, and have given it various names suggestive of its function: some refer to the script as specular, bi-fold (muthanna), duplicate writing (cift yazi), or reflecting (mutanathir) itself.

Calligrapher: Mahmud Ibrahim. 1720-1730 A.D. Mirror-image thuluth script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

  

 This page features seven lines of the nasta'liq script written in gold on a ground of fine brown applique scrolling, and white on a ground of fine gold applique scrolling, all on a dark blue background.
Turkey. 16th century. 17 x 21 cm. Nasta'liq script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

 

 Overlapping inscriptions such as this one usually used standard texts because of the difficulty of executing them. This style was particularly popular in 19th century Turkey as a way of demonstrating a calligrapher's virtuosity.

Turkey. 19th century. 20 x 33.6 cm. Thuluth script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

 

This leaf from a Spanish chestnut is inscribed in the nasta'liq script with a prayer for help from Muhammad.

Turkey. Nasta'liq script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

 

 

 

These roundels were designed as models for architectural inscriptions to decorate the sides of a dome; they bear the names of God, Muhammad, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and 'Ali, all with the customary pious invocations.

Turkey. 19th century. Diameter: 25.5 cm. Thuluth script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

  

The lion figure is formed from invocations to Ali. Invocations to Ali are a feature of Sunni as well as Shi'i piety.

Turkey. 1913 A.D. 26.5 x 38.8 cm. Thuluth script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

  

This ferman (imperial edict) includes a magnificent rendering of the tughra (the offical, yet stylized, signature of the reigning sultan) of Ahmed II. This was executed by one of the leading court calligraphers, in blue and gold with touches of orange.

Turkey. 1694 A.D. 164 x 48 cm. Divani script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

  

Tuğra (imperial monogram) of Sultan Abdülhamid II.

Calligrapher: Sami Efendi. 1880 A.D. 73 x 89.5 cm. Courtesy of the Sakıp Sabancı Museum.

  

This royal decree, or ferman, features 24 lines of divani script written in sefine ("boat") form, in black ink powdered with gold. It bears the seal, or tugra, of sultan Suleyman the Magnificent.

Turkey. 1521 A.D. 113.2 x 29.5 cm. Divani script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

  

This document features 15 lines of divani script written in sefine ("boat") form. It bears the seal, or tugra, of sultan Murad III.

Turkey. 1576 A.D. 184.5 x 40.5 cm. Divani script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

 

Turkey. 1609 A.D. 24.5 x 14.9 cm. Naskh script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.